The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, involving the historically Armenian region known as Artsakh, is one of a protracted and deeply painful dispute in the South Caucasus. Understanding its origins, key events, and current status is essential for grasping the region’s complexities.
What is Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh) and where is it located?
Nagorno-Karabakh, a name with Russian, Turkic, and Persian roots translating roughly to “mountainous black garden,” is more commonly known to Armenians by its ancient historical name, Artsakh (Արցախ). It is a landlocked, ruggedly mountainous region situated in the South Caucasus. Geographically, it lies between the Kura and Arax river valleys, covering the southeastern part of the Lesser Caucasus mountain range. Historically, Artsakh has been predominantly populated by ethnic Armenians, boasting a continuous presence and distinct cultural identity spanning millennia, evidenced by numerous ancient monasteries, churches, fortresses, and khachkars (cross-stones).
While internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, for decades its Armenian population sought self-determination. From the early 1990s until September 2023, they maintained a de facto independent state known as the Artsakh Republic (or Nagorno-Karabakh Republic), which, however, was not formally recognized by any UN member state.
Why was Nagorno-Karabakh given to Azerbaijan, and when did this happen?
The modern roots of the conflict, and a central grievance for Armenians, trace back to the early Soviet period. In the early 1920s, after the Sovietization of Armenia and Azerbaijan, decisions regarding territorial demarcations in the Caucasus were made by Soviet authorities. In July 1921, the Caucasian Bureau of the Russian Communist Party (Kavbiuro), with Joseph Stalin playing a key role as Commissar for Nationalities, initially voted to make Nagorno-Karabakh part of Soviet Armenia. However, this decision was controversially reversed a day later, and in 1923, Nagorno-Karabakh was formally established as an Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) within the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR).
This decision was made despite Nagorno-Karabakh’s population being overwhelmingly Armenian (approximately 94% at the time according to Soviet censuses) and its deep historical and cultural ties to Armenia. Armenians have consistently viewed this as an arbitrary act of territorial gerrymandering that disregarded the principle of self-determination and sowed the seeds for future conflict. Throughout the Soviet era, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh made periodic appeals to Moscow for the region’s reunification with the Armenian SSR, but these were consistently suppressed.
How did the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict start and escalate?
As the Soviet Union began to experience political loosening under Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) in the late 1980s, the long-suppressed aspirations of Nagorno-Karabakh’s Armenians resurfaced. In February 1988, the regional soviet (legislative body) of the NKAO officially voted to request the transfer of the region from the Azerbaijan SSR to the Armenian SSR.
This movement for self-determination was met with strong opposition from Soviet Azerbaijani authorities and tragically escalated into violence. Anti-Armenian pogroms occurred in Azerbaijani cities, notably in Sumgait (February 1988), Kirovabad (Ganja, November 1988), and Baku (January 1990), leading to numerous deaths and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Armenians living in Azerbaijan. Simultaneously, ethnic Azerbaijanis living in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh also faced displacement.
With the imminent collapse of the USSR, Nagorno-Karabakh declared independence as the Republic of Artsakh in September 1991. This, coupled with Azerbaijan’s own declaration of independence and its move to abolish NKAO’s autonomous status, plunged the region into the First Nagorno-Karabakh War (roughly 1988-1994). Artsakh Armenian forces, with significant support from the newly independent Republic of Armenia, fought against Azerbaijani forces. The war concluded with an Armenian military victory, resulting in Artsakh forces controlling most of the former NKAO territory and several surrounding Azerbaijani-majority districts, which they viewed as a crucial security buffer. A ceasefire, brokered primarily by Russia, was signed in May 1994 in Bishkek. This left Artsakh as a de facto independent, albeit unrecognized, state.
What happened in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War?
Despite years of negotiations mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group (co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States), no lasting political settlement was achieved, and the conflict remained “frozen,” punctuated by frequent ceasefire violations.
On September 27, 2020, Azerbaijan, with substantial military, technological, and political support from Turkey, launched a large-scale offensive, initiating the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. This 44-day war was characterized by Azerbaijan’s extensive use of advanced drone technology and superior military capabilities. Azerbaijani forces made significant territorial advances, recapturing all the surrounding territories held by Armenian forces since the first war, as well as parts of Nagorno-Karabakh itself, including the historically and strategically vital city of Shushi (Shusha).
The war ended on November 10, 2020, with a trilateral ceasefire agreement signed by the leaders of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Russia. Key provisions included the cessation of hostilities, the ceding of territories by Armenia, and the deployment of approximately 2,000 Russian peacekeeping forces to the remaining parts of Nagorno-Karabakh still under Armenian control and along the Lachin Corridor – the sole land route connecting Armenia to Nagorno-Karabakh.
What happened to Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) in 2023?
The post-2020 situation remained highly volatile. From December 12, 2022, Azerbaijan imposed a blockade on the Lachin Corridor. Initially characterized by Azerbaijan as a protest by “eco-activists,” it evolved into a full checkpoint and closure, effectively cutting off Nagorno-Karabakh’s approximately 120,000 ethnic Armenian inhabitants from Armenia and the outside world. This blockade, lasting over nine months, led to a severe humanitarian crisis, with critical shortages of food, medicine, fuel, electricity, and other essential supplies. International bodies and human rights organizations repeatedly called for the lifting of the blockade, warning of dire consequences.
On September 19, 2023, Azerbaijan launched a new, large-scale military offensive against Nagorno-Karabakh. Outnumbered and exhausted by the prolonged blockade, the local Artsakh defense forces were quickly overwhelmed. A ceasefire was declared within 24-48 hours, effectively leading to the capitulation of the de facto Artsakh authorities. In the immediate aftermath, fearing for their lives and security and facing the prospect of subjugation under Azerbaijani rule without credible international security guarantees, virtually the entire ethnic Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh – over 100,000 people – was forcibly displaced and fled to Armenia in a mass exodus over several days. This event has been widely characterized by many international observers, scholars, and Armenian sources as an act of ethnic cleansing.
Who controls Nagorno-Karabakh now and are there any Armenians left?
As of 2025, Nagorno-Karabakh is under the full military and administrative control of Azerbaijan. Following the September 2023 offensive and the subsequent mass displacement, there are virtually no ethnic Armenians remaining in Nagorno-Karabakh, marking a tragic end to millennia of Armenian presence and civilization in the region. The de facto Republic of Artsakh officially announced its dissolution and ceased to exist by January 1, 2024, though some former officials continue activities in exile.
Is Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) considered a country?
No, the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic) was never recognized as an independent country by any UN member state, including Armenia itself (though Armenia provided substantial support). Throughout its de facto existence from 1991 to 2023, the international community, including the United Nations, consistently recognized Nagorno-Karabakh as an integral part of Azerbaijan’s sovereign territory.
Is the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict over?
While large-scale military hostilities concluded with Azerbaijan’s takeover of Nagorno-Karabakh in September 2023, the broader conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan is not fully resolved. Key issues remain, including:
- The negotiation of a comprehensive peace treaty.
- The delimitation and demarcation of the interstate border.
- The rights and security of the forcibly displaced Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh, including any prospect of a safe and dignified return (which currently appears highly unlikely).
- The preservation of Armenian cultural and religious heritage sites now under Azerbaijani control.
- The status of any remaining Armenian prisoners of war or civilian detainees.
The humanitarian consequences of the 2023 events are profound and ongoing, and regional stability remains fragile.